Opinions and Viewpoints on Genetic Engineering

"The cloning of humans is on most of the lists of things to worry about from Science, along with behavior control, genetic engineering, transplanted heads, computer poetry and the unrestrained growth of plastic flowers”

-Lewis Thomas (1913-1993)

“Natural species are the library from which genetic engineers can work.”
“Genetic engineers don't make new genes, they rearrange existing ones.”

-Thomas E. Lovejoy

"Even minor tampering with nature is apt to bring serious consequences, as did the introduction of a single chemical (DDT). Genetic engineering is tampering on a monumental scale, and nature will surely exact a heavy toll for this trespass."

-Eva Novotny

"Humans have long since possessed the tools for crafting a better world. Where love, compassion, altruism and justice have failed, genetic manipulation will not succeed."

-Gina Maranto


What's your opinion on genetic engineering?
Leave us a comment and let the world know how you feel about genetic modification.

Other Potential Uses of Genetic Engineering

There is another uses for genetic engineering that I would like to briefly discuss:

Genetically engineered Bioweapons

As we have already seen, genetic engineering has many positive applications in the world. But with a technology as powerful as genetic engineering, there are also many frightening uses.

Biological warfare is one of these uses. Genetic engineering can be used to infect food sources used by large groups of people, spread poisonous or toxic materials and substances, infect populations with diseases or deliberately introduce biohazardous agents into the genetic material of animals and microorganisms. Weapons of mass destruction are another grim possibility.

Over the years, biowarfare has been used by many military and national organizations and, even though over 100 countries have officially signed a document, agreeing to ban the development of biological weapons within their borders, it is still a very present threat in our world today.

For example, it has been hypothesized that if one gram of the lethal chemical botulinum toxin was released in the environment, it would have the potential to kill up to ten million people.

And a video on human genetic engineering:

Genetically Engineered Humans Have Already Been Born

Debunking A Myth

Myth: Genetic engineering is nothing more than an accelerated version of selective breeding.



This is a completely incorrect statement!!!

Selective breeding is a practice of breeding organism's with specific beneficial traits together in order to create better offspring. Scientists choose the traits they like in these animals and stimulate breeding in order to make the traits more prevalent in offspring. Selective breeding is a process that takes place over generations and generations. Also, selective breeding can only enhance characteristics that are already present in an animal.

For example, certain cows are used for beef production while others, dairy cows, are used to produce milk. Over generations of selective breeding, scientists and farmers have created "super cows" with a much higher muscle content than regular cows and, to the same extent, dairy cows which produce much more milk than average.

Genetic engineering is a much newer process than selective breeding. The cool thing about genetic engineering is that traits from two completely different organisms can be crossed.

Genetic engineering is also much more precise and quicker than selective breeding. Specific segments of DNA are altered to create desired characteristics in an organism. This allows scientists to choose the specific gene that they want expressed in an organism and introduce it (which is not to say that it always works).

The biggest difference between these two processes is that selective breeding is a form of natural breeding which is only capable of crossing two already closely related organisms, where genetic engineering is an artificial form of trait modification, with genes that can come from several different sources.

Applications, Uses, and Examples

Genetic engineering is used as a tool by scientists to learn about particular organisms or molecules. It has literally millions of advantageous and salubrious applications in the real world. Already, we have spoken about genetically modified plants, animals, medicine, and forests, but let's take a closer look.

One of the earliest examples of ancient genetic engineering is yeast fermentation. Though not as advanced as modern techniques, yeast fermentation was a great development in the distant past. As early as 1750 BC people have been utilizing yeast, eukaryotic microorganisms, to brew beer and bake bread.

In bread, yeast is used as a leavening agent. It converts fermentable sugars in the dough into carbon dioxide, creating bubbles, and causing the dough to expand.

Another use of yeast is to generate electricity in microbial fuel cells. As it becomes painfully apparent that our reliance on fossil fuels cannot last forever, scientists are looking to genetic engineering in yeast and similar micro-organisms as a source of biofuels (esp. ethanol). Bio-electrochemical devices called microbial fuel cells can be used to harness the chemical energy from micro-organisms and, using a catalyst, use these chemical reactions to create electricity. Genetic engineering can be used to isolate mitochondrial DNA from microorganisms and utilize it to initiate chemical reactions, such as those used in an animal's metabolism, to maintain life, and convert them into other forms of energy.

Another common use which we have discussed is medicine.
Scientists have identified over 4000 diseases that result from mutated genes, including down syndrome, breast cancer, cystic fibrosis, deafness, muscular dystrophy and Fragile X Syndrome. Using gene therapy techniques, scientists believe they can improve the lives of those dealing with these diseases and more.


Recently, genetically engineered meat has become a big topic of discussion. Scientists were able to create synthetic meat in a laboratory, without ever harming a single organism. They did this by first extracting a pig cell with DNA, containing genes for protein synthesis, from a pig's muscle tissue. Then, in a petri dish, this cell was cultured. Immediately, it began replicating until meat, suitable for consumption, had been created. The pioneer behind this meat, Jason Matheney, claims "(a) single cell could be used to produce enough meat to feed the global population for a year." Indeed, the prospects do look good. Still, there are many improvements that still need to be made.

Genetically engineering meat also conserves resources which would otherwise be used to feed the animal herds. It even reduces greenhouse gas emissions from the methane that the livestock release. If genetically engineered meat does enter large-scale production, many farm animals will be saved and profits will likely increase, as it will not be necessary to buy food to sustain livestock, but what happens to the farmers who depend on these animals to make a living?

Animal-Human Organ Transplant- Organ transplants from organisms with a similar genetic code to humans such as pigs can also be useful for replacing damaged organs. Genetic engineering can make more human-like organs in other animals, reducing the chances of the human body rejecting the new organ.







Here are some of the examples of animals and plants that have been genetically modified:

• Many spruce trees are currently being modified to live longer, grow taller, produce more wood and spread quicker in order to supply the booming forestry business. However, this could also have many adverse, negative effects on the plants living there. Activist group GreenPeace is working towards a global moratorium on commercial GE trees. Their biggest fear is that these GE trees will "usurp" all other vegetation in their area, leaving many animals without homes. So far, there has been no ban, but parties like GreenPeace assure scientists that transgenic trees are a threat to wildlife and biodiversity.
• Glofish are another example of common genetically engineered organisms. First appearing on the market in 2009, Glofish are genetically engineered zebrafish, who have been modified to emit light. This was done by placing a gene for bioluminescence in jellyfish within a group of ordinary zebra fish. Currently, Glofish are being sold as the first genetically modified pets in the world.
• Rapeseed (or canola) plants are being genetically engineered to increase resistance to lethal pesticides. Because of these genetic modifications, farmers are able to spray their crops with insecticides to kill pests and still have the plants survive. This also improves overall crop yield.
• Golden rice is developed to have very large amounts of A-Vitamins, which improve the health of those who eat it, mostly residing in third world countries.
  - One goat was genetically modified with a special gene to produce milk fortified with the silk of a silkworm. This made the milk much healthier.

Artificial human hormones are an example of genetically engineered medicines. Aside from insulin, many artificial nervous system transmitters, such as endorphins, tissue-type plasmogen activators created to treat heart attack victims, interferons that stimulate the immune system, and many other genetically engineered hormones are used to treat viruses and remove mutagens.

One of these genetically altered medicines, artificial growth hormone, a peptide, is used extensively to heal patients with inherited dwarfism, in attempts to help them live normal lives.
The effects of use (and abuse) of genetically engineered hormones are still relatively unknown and could be dangerous to the health of those who introduce it into their body.



Already, grocery store shelves are lined with packs of genetically modified foods. Unfortunately, there are no completely accurate ways of knowing if a food item has been genetically engineered, because the FDA does not require that it be stated on any packaging.

One of the most interesting of these genetically modified foods is the grapple (pictured above). Like many other genetically engineered foods, the grapple was not created simply as a research experiment.

As you may have guessed, the grapple is a combination of the genes of a grape and an apple, taking the apple's size, shape, and color, and the texture, flavour, and vitamin content of the grape. It was created to provide impoverished peoples living in 3rd world, under-developed countries with more vitamin C per serving than any other fruits.


Some More examples of GMOs.




Case Study- The OncoMouse
To what extent do humans have the right to own or control other animals?

The OncoMouse is an example of human patenting of genetically modified organisms. Created to easily simulate the effects of cancerous viruses in humans by using an oncogene which increases susceptibility to cancer in organisms, the OncoMouse was first submitted for patenting in 1988. It was a landmark case: Harvard v. Canada, both vying for ownership of the OncoMouse.

At first, Canada had won the patent, but soon the Commisioner of Patents reversed the decision, as the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that higher lifeforms could not be patented in the country.

The OncoMouse was developed by Philip Leder and Timothy A. Stewart of Harvard University.

The History of Genetic Engineering

When considering where to begin on the chronological timeline of genetic engineering, you need to consider a number of things:
-Traditionally, selective breeding has been going on for centuries, but is it considered a form of genetic engineering?
- Is cross-breeding species a form of genetic engineering?
- What forms of genetic engineering will be included in a list of this kind?

Nonetheless, here is a brief history of genetic engineering:

Summary: During the early 1900s, scientists began mapping out and reproducing chromosomes for experimental purposes.
Modern genetic engineering first began in the late 1960s, early 1970s, as work with viruses, bacteria, and plasmids began.
Also in the 1970s, techniques for isolating, altering, and reintroducing genes into organisms were developed. Methods were created to alter the heredity of some genes in plants, animals, and microorganisms. Near the end of the 1970s, scientists began working on engineering hormones, such as insulin from recombinant DNA.
Bacterially produced insulin became the first approved, genetically engineered medicine in the early 1980s.
Research began on higher animals, mostly mammals, using lab mice as research subjects.

BC
1750 BC The Sumerians first brew beer, using yeast.

250 BC The ancient Greeks practice crop rotation to maximize on soil fertility.

100 BC Powdered chrysanthemums are used as an insecticide in China.

AD

1590 The first microscope is invented by Zacharias Jansen, a Dutch man, in order to increase magnification in eyeglasses.

1663 Cells are first described by Hooke in a piece of cork.

1675 Leeuwenhoek discovers bacteria and protozoa.

1797 Jenner vaccinates a child with a vaccine to protect from smallpox.

19th Century

1830 Proteins are discovered.

1833 The cell nucleus is discovered.

1855 The Escherichia coli (E. Coli) bacterium is discovered. It becomes a major research, development, and production tool for biotechnology and is very important in diabetes treatment.

Pasteur begins working with yeast until he proves that they are living organisms.

1863 Gregor Mendel, in his study of peas, discovers that traits were transmitted from parents to offspring by discrete, independent units, later called genes. His observations lay the groundwork for the fiel

d of genetics.

1869 Miescher discovers DNA in trout sperm.

1877 A technique for staining and identifying bacteria is developed by Koch.

1878 The first centrifuge is developed by Laval. It is able to separate parts of genetic material.

1883 The first rabies vaccine is made.

1888 The chromosome is discovered. Chromosomes, organized structures made up of a strand of DNA binded and coiled around specific proteins and containing genes, are used when cells are replicated.

20th Century

1909 Genes are linked with hereditary disorders.

1911 The first cancer-causing virus is discovered. Cancer is the continuous, uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells.

1914 Microorganisms are used to treat sewage for the first time in Manchester, England.

1915 Bacterial viruses are discovered.

1927 Muller discovers that X-rays can cause mutations.

1928 Fleming discovers penicillin, the first ever antibiotic in the world, a major breakthrough.

1941 The term "genetic engineering" is first used by a Danish scientist.

1942 The electron microscope is used to examine a bacteriophage- a virus that infects bacteria.

1943 Avery demonstrates that DNA is the "transforming factor" and is the material of genes.

1951 McClintock discovers transposable genes, or "jumping genes," in corn. These genes can travel to different segments in an organism's genome.

1953 Very Important! James Watson, Francis Crick, and Rosalind Franklin reveal the three-dimensional, double helical structure of DNA.

1955 An enzyme involved in the synthesis of a nucleic acid is isolated for the first time.

1957 Sickle cell anemia (decrease in normal amount of red blood cells or hemoglobin in blood) is shown to occur due to a change of a single amino acid. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein and serve a critical function in an organism's metabolism.

1960 Hybrid DNA molecules are created.

Messenger RNA and its role in protein creation is found.

1968 Werner Arber discovers the first restriction enzymes. This opens up a door to countless possibilities in genetic engineering.

1970 Specific restriction nucleases (enzymes) are identified, opening the way for gene cloning.

1972 The DNA composition of humans is found to be 99% similar to that of chimpanzees and gorillas.

1973 Stanley N. Cohen Cohen and Herbert W. Boyer perform the first successful recombinant DNA experiment, using bacterial genes. This sets the framework for modern genetic engineering.

1975 New staining techniques are developed for detecting and identifying DNA sequences.

1976 The tools of recombinant DNA are first applied to a human inherited disorder.

1979 The first identical antibodies are produced.

1981 The first gene-synthesizing machines are developed.

1982 Humulin, Genentech's synthetic human insulin drug produced by genetically engineered bacteria for the treatment of diabetes, is the first biotech drug to be approved by the Food and Drug Administration.

1983 The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique is created. PCR, which uses heat and enzymes to make unlimited copies of genes , later becomes a major tool in biotech research and product development worldwide.

The first genetic transference (transformation) of plant cells by TI plasmids (circular plasmids found in agrobacterium) is performed.

The first artificial chromosome is synthesized.

Efficient methods are developed to synthesize double-stranded DNA from single-strand cloned DNA, with minimal loss of genetic sequencing information.

1984 The DNA fingerprinting technique is developed.

The first genetically engineered vaccine is developed.

1985 Fully active murine genes (from a common mouse) are cloned in E. coli.

1986 The first field tests of genetically engineered tobacco are conducted.

The first genetically engineered human vaccine is approved to prevent Hepatitis B.

1987 Humatrope is developed for treating human growth hormone deficiency to help exceptionally short or small humans.

Frostban, a genetically altered bacterium that stops frost from forming on crop plants, is field tested on strawberry and potato plants in California, the first authorized outdoor tests of any engineered bacterium.

1988 The Human Genome Project begins in the US.

The first patent on a genetically modified life form is issued. The animal is the OncoMouse, specially modified for cancer research.

1989 Microorganisms are used to clean up a major oil spill.

1990 The first federally approved gene therapy treatment is performed successfully on a 4-yearold girl suffering from severe immunodeficiency disease, making her very susceptible to other infectious diseases.

1991 Leukine, used to replenish white blood counts after bone marrow transplants, is approved.

1993 Chiron's Betaseron is released as the first treatment for multiple sclerosis in 20 years.

The FDA declares that genetically engineered foods are "not inherently dangerous" and do not require special regulations.

1994 The first breast cancer gene is discovered.

Calgene's "FlAVR SAVR" tomato, engineered to have a longer shelf life", is approved for sale in the US.

1995 The first baboon-to-human bone marrow transplant is performed on an AIDS patient and found to be successful.

The first full gene sequence of a living organism other than a virus is completed .

1996 The Biogen company builds a $50 million plant in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, to manufacture many recombinant DNA drugs.

Scottish scientists led by Ian Wilmut clone identical lambs from early embryonic sheep.This eventually produces Dolly, the sheep.

1997 A group of Oregon researchers claims to have cloned two Rhesus monkeys.

A new DNA technique which uses DNA computer chips and is special program is created, providing a new tool in the search for disease-causing genes.

The USDA amends its regulations for genetically engineered plants. If a producer can prove their plants will have no negative effects on the environment, they can apply and be accepted and approved for non-regulatory status.

1998 Hawaiian scientists clone three generations of mice from nuclei of adult ovarian (egg) cells.

Human skin is produced in vitro (outside of the body).

Embryonic stem cells are used to regenerate tissue and repair damaged organs.

The first complete animal genome for the elegans worm is sequenced.

1998 The change of demographics and public opinion in Europe brings biotech food into the spotlight.

21st Century

2000 Pigs are cloned by researchers, in hopes of producing organs for human transplant.

The 2.18 million base pairs (guanine- cytosine, thymine- adenine; connected by hydrogen bonds) of the most common cause of bacterial meningitis are identified.

2001 The sequence of the human genome is deciphered and published in Science and Nature, making it possible for researchers all over the world to begin developing treatments.

2002 Scientists complete the draft sequence of the most important pathogen (germ that causes negative effects) of rice, a fungus that destroys enough rice to feed 60 million people annually. By using an understanding of the genomes of the fungus and rice, scientists explain the molecular basis of the interactions between the plant and pathogen begin working on ways to rectify the problem.

2003 Dolly, the cloned sheep that became famous in 1997, is euthanized (put down) after developing progressive lung disease. Dolly was the first successful clone of a mammal in history.

Glofish, the first publicly available genetically modified pets, go on sale. To create these Glofish, ordinary zebrafish are injected with green fluorouscent protein, extracted from jellyfish, producing bright green biolumiscence.

Interesting fact -The word "biology" first appeared in 1802.

Check out http://www.iptv.org/exploremore/ge/what/timeline.cfmfor an interactive timeline on the history of genetic engineering.

Genetic Engineering In Plants and Forests

Plants and Crops
Genetic engineering in plants and crops is a substantially easier topic to understand than genetic engineering in animals.

For years, plants have been genetically engineered to control certain traits of interest. This is especially true when it comes to crop plants. Genetic engineering allows scientists, farmers, and company owners to choose the best of a group of crops and then recreate the desirable traits it possesses in other crops. The potential for the technology here is incredible.

There are two main types of genetic engineering in agricultural genetic modification:

Cisgenesis (meaning "same" and "beginning"): Cisgenesis is a genetic engineering technique between two plants that could normally be bred together in nature. A beneficial gene is extracted from a first plant and then transplanted into a plasmid within an agrobacterium (a bacteria known for its ability to transfer DNA between plants), often by use of a restriction enzyme. This enzyme cuts both the plasmid and the agrobacterium into shapes that fit into each other, and when the sticky ends make contact, they connect. Because all organisms share the same genetic code, when this agrobacterium transfers the desired genetic sequence into the new plant, the second plant is able to begin demonstrating the same traits as the first plant, according to the genetic information.

Transgenesis: Transgenesis is extremely similar to Cisgenesis. In fact, the only difference is that in Transgenesis, the genetic material that is being transferred comes from a completely unrelated plant, which could not reproduce with the second plant in nature. Once again, an external gene originating from another plant is transferred into another plant through a plasmid.
The second plant is then able to exhibit the same traits as the first. These traits are passed on to offspring.

Genetically modifying plants can greatly increase their nutritive value and make them more resistant to harsh or unfamiliar conditions and deadly diseases. Could you imagine planting a palm tree in Canada, during winter and having it survive!?
It would also be possible to make plants fix nitrogen straight from the atmosphere and not nutrients in their soil. This would make it much easier to plant nutritious crops in areas where there is not a large amount of fertile or healthy land or where there are major food sources and starvation.
Microorganisms could even be placed in plants' roots to aid in the collection of nutrients. Specific plants could be modified to even cleanse the environment around them and get rid of hazardous toxins. The possibilities are nearly endless.

Another Video:
What's for Dinner? - The Difference Between
Regular and Genetically Modified Potatoes

FRANKEN FOODS!

Forests
In today's world, forestry is a major and very profitable industry for numerous countries across the world, including our own. Products created from lumber are in very high demand and suppliers spend billions of dollars every year to provide them. As more and more companies join the increasing rush to harvest these resources, overall forest health and the number of trees worldwide is rapidly declining, leading many to look to genetic engineering for a solution.

Genetically modified trees are created more or less by the same process as other plants. Genes holding the codes for desired traits are placed into the forest's trees and they soon begin exhibiting the same desired traits. Offspring borne of their seeds also share the same traits.

If you recall, from our previous posts, genetic engineering is a process which allows scientists to choose and control specific genes in an organism's genome. Recent research in genetically modified trees has revealed that it is possible to engineer trees with faster growth, better disease resistance, greater longevity of life, and more oxygen production. Transgenic trees could produce better wood fibres and pulp. Damaged and endangered species disappearing from the face of the planet could also have their numbers dramatically increased by this technology. Many problems too, however, could come from genetically engineering forests. We will discuss these issues in a later post.

The Dangers of Deforestation

The Goal: Genetically Engineering Organisms: Is it fair?- Moral and Ethical Implications ; Pros and Cons

Before we continue any further, let's answer a question about the reasons behind genetic engineering. Forgive us if we get a little...uhh... philosophical (or insane) in this post.

As we know, genetic engineering is when genes and segments of DNA from a cell's chromosomes, the holding place for all genetic and hereditary material, are manipulated for desired effects. When scientists first began working on genetically modifying organisms, they sought to reach a point where it would be possible to develop a slew of "made-to-order" organisms, specialized for particular purposes. Obviously, we still have not reached this point, but perhaps some day in the future, this dream will be realized. Still, even with all the progress science has made in this field, the question remains:
Why is Genetic Engineering Necessary?
Let's attempt to offer a balanced view on this puzzling question, with a collection of pros and cons. *Takes a deep breath*
Pros (Advantages):

• Genetic engineering makes it possible to understand the functions of genes, how genetic mutations and diseases occur, and helps us learn how to treat them, in order to protect further generations.
• Genetically modified, therapeutic medicines can greatly increase immunity to lethal diseases and even cure others. Gene therapy may also be used to heal hereditary or genetic diseases, such as blindness. Modified white blood cells can be used to fight cancerous tumors created by abnormal cells or anomalies in genetic code.
  
• New, quick- growing, cheap, easily renewable and nutritious crops could be engineered as a viable alternative to current foods.
• Genetic modification of mammals may make it possible to create very human-like organs within them. This would greatly reduce the number of donated organs available for transplants in humans. By process of xenotransplantation, the transgenic organs could be transferred to a human who requires them to survive.
  
• Genetic engineering can be used to save species on the brink of extinction. For example, in China, researchers are working on a way to save the Panda.
• Forests can be modified to clean environments, grow larger, and produce more oxygen. GE trees are also being looked at as a possible source for future environmentally- friendly biofeuls.
  
• Genetic engineering can make a wide array of useful antibiotics to deal with illnesses.
  
• Provide those living in third world countries, deprived of resources, with more nutritious and abundant sources of food.
• Genetic engineering can be used to synthesize artificial hormones needed for life, that some patients may be missing.
  

Cons (Disadvantages):

• Many believe that humans do not have the right to experiment on other organisms. All living things have rights, and genetic modification infringes upon these rights.
• Some organisms and embryos are produced simply to harvest one desired gene and discard the remainder of the organic material. This is a blatant disregard for the value of life.
  
• When humans genetically alter organisms, they are "playing God". Many people opposed to genetic engineering believe that only nature should regulate an organism' s evolution, certainly not humans.
• Genetically modified organisms which possess better traits for survival in an environment than their non-modified counterparts will encroach upon the territories of organisms already living there and "choke them out" until the original species ceases to exist. This is similar to introducing an exotic species into a foreign ecosystem where they can thrive. They will usually damage the fragile ecosystem.
  
• Because genetic engineering crosses the "species barrier", some of the modifications made to an organism could be potentially harmful and irreversible. Even worse, it may take years to detect any problems.
  
• As a relatively new technology, there are still many things to be learned about genetic engineering. There are currently no ways of controlling the amount of gene copies placed in a host organism or knowing where the genome will end up. This could lead to some dangerous results.
• Genetically modified organisms may accidentally "silence" an important gene because of the introduction of a new one. This has many unhealthy, adverse effects.
  
• Genetically modified crops tend to have major failures. Because all of the seeds of these crops share the same genetic structure, a virus or fungus that negatively affects one will negatively affect all others.
• Genetic engineering can cause unexpected mutations in organisms and high levels of toxicity in plants. It can also create unforeseen allergens, which could affect many humans, and virtually irreversible damage to ecology (mostly because of gene pollution).
  

Some Questions to Consider:
Only you know the answer to these questions. What is your personal opinion?

- Is the genetic manipulation of animals and plants always morally wrong or are their exceptions?
- Should animal's organs be modified to prevent tissue rejection when transplanted into humans?
- Is is fair to use an animals organs to supply humans?
-Are animal rights the same as human rights?
-How dangerous is it to release genetically modified organisms who have not been properly researched into the biosphere?
-Should humans be able to patent a new genetically modified plant or animal?
-Is genetic engineering research today focused too much on making a profit and not enough on solving problems in nature?

Formally, no countries have completely banned genetic engineering within their borders. However, there are currently many organizations seeking to pass legislation to outlaw genetically modified foods and the genetic engineering of biological organisms and weapons.

Numerous religious, personal, and human factors affect our beliefs on the morality of genetic engineering.

Those who genetically engineer organisms choose desired traits which they believe will be beneficial, but who is to decide which traits take precedent over others? Does the entire process of genetic engineering undermine the value of life? If scientists abandon their morals, they are nothing more than mindless automatons, completing the tasks assigned to them.

And my final question: If the animals were on the other side of the fork, would they care about our rights?

Here's a video that outlines the ethical concerns surrounding genetic engineering. It's somewhat long winded, but very informative:
Ethical Concerns With Genetic Engineering




Also, here's another animation to help you further understand the topic of gene cloning. Enjoy!

Genetically Engineering Animals: The Process

When the term "genetic engineering" is mentioned, what are the first notions that pop up in your mind? For most people, thoughts of fantastical hybrid animals or amalgamations of various connected animal parts appear. For the more imaginative, it may conjure up thoughts of a higher species of super-humans, far superior to our own. In practice, genetically modifying animals is a much more modest technology.

Genetically engineering animals works only because of the fact that all organisms on Earth are made up of the same basic biochemical components. The cells of all organisms on our planet utilize a similar genetic code to delegate specialized tasks, making it possible for scientists to replace or alter these genes to change an organism's appearance, behavior, structure or even their evolutionary process.

The beauty of this technology is that DNA derived from two vastly different organisms may be transferred, giving us some pretty amazing end results. Still, producing these transgenic organisms or GEOs (Genetically engineered organisms) has proved to be much harder than originally believed.

There are two main methods of introducing foreign genetic material into an organism's genome:

Pro-nuclear micro-injection: Usually, genetic modification is carried out by micro-injection.

Using Plasmids:
First, the desired gene in the nucleus of an organism's cell, containing DNA, is isolated. Second, this desired gene may be placed in a vector, such as a plasmid. The plasmid is the basis of recombinant DNA technology. Plasmids can contain anywhere from 2-250 genes.

A plasmid (or vector when being used to transfer a specific gene) is a tiny, extra-chromosomal DNA molecule, which can be altered by using an enzyme or solution. This creates "sticky", cohesive ends which can fit together with the gene of interest once it, too, has had its shape mutated by the restriction enzyme. A DNA ligase can also be used to strengthen these bonds. After the plasmid is connected with the gene of interest from another organism, it is placed back in the chromosomal DNA host cell. Eventually, the changed plasmid is integrated into the DNA (it creates new connections between the nucleotides: guanine, adenine, cytosine, and thymine in the DNA) and placed within a test subject. Once inside the organism, these cell begins to replicate, spreading the new functionality to all cells in the test subject. The new gene transcribes messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid), which are translated by ribosomes, microscopic organelles within cells, and protein synthesis begins.

Physical Injection:
Physical insertion of a desired gene into a fertilized mammalian egg is a much simpler form of genetic engineering. A solution containing a gene of interest is directly injected into a fertilized egg during its early developmental stages using a microscopic syringe. The egg is now placed in a surrogate mother. When offspring are born, they are screened for the desired trait. This gene may or may not be expressed in the offspring. For those who test positive for the gene of interest, further breeding ensues.


Somatic cell nuclear transfer: This process is used extensively in the field of cloning, but somatic cell nuclear transfer can also be used to modify an animal's genetic code. The nucleus of an unfertilized egg from a first donor is removed and then replaced with a somatic cell nucleus from another donor. A somatic cell is a body cell (one that is not a sperm or egg cell), containing the genetic material of the organism to be replicated. Next, the egg is cultured in a laboratory. It is at this point that new genetic material may be introduced into the egg by a microscopic pipette. After an electrical shock, the egg begins to duplicate and the embryo is quickly implanted into a surrogate mother. The replicating of strands of DNA now contain the desired gene that was added at the lab. Soon an offspring is born, carrying this new gene.

Here are two videos on this subject:
Gene Splicing


Genetically Modifying Pigs

Genetic Engineering in Medicine

Genetic engineering has a broad variety of applications in the medical world. Because this biotechnology can modify the organic parts of an organism's genetic code, it may be used to strengthen immunity or even to remove ("weed out") diseased cells. Scientists are pushing the frontiers of both science and medicine. Let's talk about some of the types of medicines that are being created using today's genetic engineering technology.

Pharmacogenomics: Every human being (excluding some exceptions) has a unique genetic structure. So, then, why does everyone receive the same types of medicine for their different circumstances?

Pharmacogenomics is a new branch of pharmeuceutics, which aims to tailor medicines to work with an individual's unique genetic structure. This entire branch is based upon the belief that drugs made to work with one specific genetic make-up will be far more effective than what is currently in use. Pharmacogenomics is very new and has only been around for about five years.

Vaccines: Vaccines are the most effective form of disease prevention in the world, except for clean water. There are numerous ways to use genetic engineering to manufacture vaccines and antibiotics on a large scale.

First, scientists determine which gene in a pathogenic, or disease-causing, virus stimulates the production of antibodies in the human immune system. The section of DNA containing this gene is isolated and then placed into a non-harmful virus, such as the one used to vaccinate against smallpox many years ago. This is usually accomplished by the use of a plasmid, which acts as chromosomal DNA and replicates in the new bacterium where it has been incorporated. The new virus, containing the recombinant DNA, is used as a vaccine and injected into patients.

Genetically modified vaccines are much safer than conventional ones because they do not expose the patient to the actual virus, as it may sometimes lead to accidental infection.

Gene Therapy: Gene therapy deals with medical conditions by introducing specific genetically engineered genes into the cells of a patient.There are two types of gene therapy: Somatic cell and germ line.

Somatic cell- This form of gene therapy deals only with non-reproductive cells within the body (somatic). Instead of introducing new cells, somatic cell gene therapy modifies already existent ones. The effects of somatic cell gene therapy are not inherited in offspring and will only affect the individual who is treated.

Usually, the desired genes will be placed in another non-harmful virus and injected into a patient. This process attempts to introduce the gene into millions of cells in the patient's body. However, accomplishing this is a very difficult task and the process will often not work. In the future, though, it could be more capable of expressing certain, helpful genes in those who need it.

Germ Line- Germ line therapy occurs at a very early stage of the development of an organism, so that all cells that duplicate from it, will all possess the desired gene or modified DNA. First started in the 1980s, germ line therapy has become an easy and very commonplace process. Nowadays, most scientists are able to alter an animal's embryo at birth.

Because it allows scientists to alter an organisms genetic code before it is born, germ line therapy can be used to remove unwanted genes for crippling muscle or life-threatening diseases, to ensure that offspring are not born with them. Still, the effects of this form of gene therapy on humans are still very much unknown.

In the future, this technology could be used by parents to choose desired traits for their offspring prior to their birth. This method of gene therapy raises many serious ethical questions, prompting the AAAS (American Assosiciation for the Advancement of Science) to issue a temporary ban on it in the year 2000.

Gene Therapy Animation- Introduction
of a Therapeutic Agent into Liver Cells




Insulin and Other Hormones and Chemicals: The first synthetic human insulin was released in 1982. Until then, humans with an insulin deficiency, such as diabetes, were required to recieve transplants from the pancreases of other animals.

The process of creating synthetic insulin is quite simple. It relies heavily on DNA recombination. First a plasmid from a cell of the E. Coli bateria living within human intestines is removed and opened by using a special enzyme. Next the DNA coding for human insulin is inserted into the open plasmid and closed by another enzyme. The recombined plasmid is inserted into a host E. Coli cell and begins to replicate. Because all of the replicated cells are the same, human insulin production begins, according to the DNA implanted in the cell.

Using similar processes, scientists are also able to create large amounts of other substances useful in medicines, such as peptides which are short proteins. Many of these chemicals are used to alter hormone production around the body or genetically engineered to create proteins which stimulate the immune system. They may also be used to heal viruses, including certain types of cancer. We will speak more about these chemicals in a later post.

Stem Cells:
At the Democratic National Convention in July 2004, former US president Ronald Reagan hailed embryonic stem cell research as:

“(the) greatest medical breakthrough in our or in any lifetime”

Basically, embryonic stem cells are very young cells found in a mammal's embryo, which can be used to create many forms of tissue to repair or replace damaged organs in humans. They are especially useful because embryonic stem cells can be used to replace important tissue that does not grow back, such as that from a brain. Also, using embryonic stem cells to repair organs is much safer and more plentiful than using donated tissue.

So how do they do it? First, scientists remove a female egg cell and fertilize it in vitro (outside of the body) They allow the egg to grow in a blastocyst of a few hundred cells within the laboratory. A blastocyst is an embryonic structure that forms during the early stages of embryogenesis (the creation of an embryo). Then, scientists remove the inner mass of the embryo, containing the useful stem cells.

Embryonic stem cells are much more useful than other adult stem cells because they can create a much broader range of tissues. Adult stem cells are already specialized for creating a certain tissue, limiting their functionality in other parts of the body.

Scientists are also looking at extracting cells from a female's uterus or the ends of a baby's umbilical cord to repair tissue, but this is still a new and untested procedure. So far, no one has succeeded in curing diseases with adult stem cells, but embryonic stem cells are much more promising.

So, why the controversy?

During the process of harvesting the useful stem cells, the rest of the embryo is destroyed. Because of this, embryonic stem cell research has become a highly debated topic. Some believe that destroying the embryo is akin to murdering a human being, while others argue that the embryo is nothing but a collection of cells, still incapable of thinking or feeling pain as they have not yet reached the 28th week of gestation within the fetus.

Another advantage of using embryonic stem cells is that they are cross-species, meaning that stem cells from a human could be used to heal an animal, or vice versa. In one example, human embryonic stem cells were used to fix the spinal column of a paralyzed rat, enabling it to walk again and even run on a minature treadmill.

Stem cells could even be used to create clones.

Here's a video about some newer developments in the field of stem cell research.
Stem Cells: Of Mice and Men

What is Genetic Engineering?

Here is the simple answer to this difficult question : genetic engineering is the process by which the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), or source of individuality of every organism on Earth, is directly manipulated in order to yield specific features or characteristics in an organism.
Because genetic engineering utilizes artificial methods to attain desired results, it is different from traditional forms of selective breeding. GE technology can be used to manipulate the appearance, structure, behavior, reactions to external stimuli, and metabolism of an organism, just to name a few uses.


Genetic engineering (also known as genetic modification or gene splicing) is a very complex topic, spanning several varied biotechnologies.

We will focus on and explore the following four subjects and how they relate to genetic engineering:

• Medicine
  
• Animals
  
• Plants
• Forests

The advance of genetic engineering makes it quite conceivable that we will begin to design our own evolutionary process.

~Isaac Asimov, The Beginning and the End

Hey, Everybody!

Welcome to the genetic engineering blog, dedicated to... you guessed it... genetic engineering!
Over the next few days, we'll be speaking about this complicated subject and its many forms around the world.

We hope you enjoy this short trip!

Maybe you'll even learn a thing or two.

Either way, have fun.

~Lotfi and Branko
Ninth Grade, A.E. Cross Junior High