Opinions and Viewpoints on Genetic Engineering

"The cloning of humans is on most of the lists of things to worry about from Science, along with behavior control, genetic engineering, transplanted heads, computer poetry and the unrestrained growth of plastic flowers”

-Lewis Thomas (1913-1993)

“Natural species are the library from which genetic engineers can work.”
“Genetic engineers don't make new genes, they rearrange existing ones.”

-Thomas E. Lovejoy

"Even minor tampering with nature is apt to bring serious consequences, as did the introduction of a single chemical (DDT). Genetic engineering is tampering on a monumental scale, and nature will surely exact a heavy toll for this trespass."

-Eva Novotny

"Humans have long since possessed the tools for crafting a better world. Where love, compassion, altruism and justice have failed, genetic manipulation will not succeed."

-Gina Maranto


What's your opinion on genetic engineering?
Leave us a comment and let the world know how you feel about genetic modification.

Other Potential Uses of Genetic Engineering

There is another uses for genetic engineering that I would like to briefly discuss:

Genetically engineered Bioweapons

As we have already seen, genetic engineering has many positive applications in the world. But with a technology as powerful as genetic engineering, there are also many frightening uses.

Biological warfare is one of these uses. Genetic engineering can be used to infect food sources used by large groups of people, spread poisonous or toxic materials and substances, infect populations with diseases or deliberately introduce biohazardous agents into the genetic material of animals and microorganisms. Weapons of mass destruction are another grim possibility.

Over the years, biowarfare has been used by many military and national organizations and, even though over 100 countries have officially signed a document, agreeing to ban the development of biological weapons within their borders, it is still a very present threat in our world today.

For example, it has been hypothesized that if one gram of the lethal chemical botulinum toxin was released in the environment, it would have the potential to kill up to ten million people.

And a video on human genetic engineering:

Genetically Engineered Humans Have Already Been Born

Debunking A Myth

Myth: Genetic engineering is nothing more than an accelerated version of selective breeding.



This is a completely incorrect statement!!!

Selective breeding is a practice of breeding organism's with specific beneficial traits together in order to create better offspring. Scientists choose the traits they like in these animals and stimulate breeding in order to make the traits more prevalent in offspring. Selective breeding is a process that takes place over generations and generations. Also, selective breeding can only enhance characteristics that are already present in an animal.

For example, certain cows are used for beef production while others, dairy cows, are used to produce milk. Over generations of selective breeding, scientists and farmers have created "super cows" with a much higher muscle content than regular cows and, to the same extent, dairy cows which produce much more milk than average.

Genetic engineering is a much newer process than selective breeding. The cool thing about genetic engineering is that traits from two completely different organisms can be crossed.

Genetic engineering is also much more precise and quicker than selective breeding. Specific segments of DNA are altered to create desired characteristics in an organism. This allows scientists to choose the specific gene that they want expressed in an organism and introduce it (which is not to say that it always works).

The biggest difference between these two processes is that selective breeding is a form of natural breeding which is only capable of crossing two already closely related organisms, where genetic engineering is an artificial form of trait modification, with genes that can come from several different sources.

Applications, Uses, and Examples

Genetic engineering is used as a tool by scientists to learn about particular organisms or molecules. It has literally millions of advantageous and salubrious applications in the real world. Already, we have spoken about genetically modified plants, animals, medicine, and forests, but let's take a closer look.

One of the earliest examples of ancient genetic engineering is yeast fermentation. Though not as advanced as modern techniques, yeast fermentation was a great development in the distant past. As early as 1750 BC people have been utilizing yeast, eukaryotic microorganisms, to brew beer and bake bread.

In bread, yeast is used as a leavening agent. It converts fermentable sugars in the dough into carbon dioxide, creating bubbles, and causing the dough to expand.

Another use of yeast is to generate electricity in microbial fuel cells. As it becomes painfully apparent that our reliance on fossil fuels cannot last forever, scientists are looking to genetic engineering in yeast and similar micro-organisms as a source of biofuels (esp. ethanol). Bio-electrochemical devices called microbial fuel cells can be used to harness the chemical energy from micro-organisms and, using a catalyst, use these chemical reactions to create electricity. Genetic engineering can be used to isolate mitochondrial DNA from microorganisms and utilize it to initiate chemical reactions, such as those used in an animal's metabolism, to maintain life, and convert them into other forms of energy.

Another common use which we have discussed is medicine.
Scientists have identified over 4000 diseases that result from mutated genes, including down syndrome, breast cancer, cystic fibrosis, deafness, muscular dystrophy and Fragile X Syndrome. Using gene therapy techniques, scientists believe they can improve the lives of those dealing with these diseases and more.


Recently, genetically engineered meat has become a big topic of discussion. Scientists were able to create synthetic meat in a laboratory, without ever harming a single organism. They did this by first extracting a pig cell with DNA, containing genes for protein synthesis, from a pig's muscle tissue. Then, in a petri dish, this cell was cultured. Immediately, it began replicating until meat, suitable for consumption, had been created. The pioneer behind this meat, Jason Matheney, claims "(a) single cell could be used to produce enough meat to feed the global population for a year." Indeed, the prospects do look good. Still, there are many improvements that still need to be made.

Genetically engineering meat also conserves resources which would otherwise be used to feed the animal herds. It even reduces greenhouse gas emissions from the methane that the livestock release. If genetically engineered meat does enter large-scale production, many farm animals will be saved and profits will likely increase, as it will not be necessary to buy food to sustain livestock, but what happens to the farmers who depend on these animals to make a living?

Animal-Human Organ Transplant- Organ transplants from organisms with a similar genetic code to humans such as pigs can also be useful for replacing damaged organs. Genetic engineering can make more human-like organs in other animals, reducing the chances of the human body rejecting the new organ.







Here are some of the examples of animals and plants that have been genetically modified:

• Many spruce trees are currently being modified to live longer, grow taller, produce more wood and spread quicker in order to supply the booming forestry business. However, this could also have many adverse, negative effects on the plants living there. Activist group GreenPeace is working towards a global moratorium on commercial GE trees. Their biggest fear is that these GE trees will "usurp" all other vegetation in their area, leaving many animals without homes. So far, there has been no ban, but parties like GreenPeace assure scientists that transgenic trees are a threat to wildlife and biodiversity.
• Glofish are another example of common genetically engineered organisms. First appearing on the market in 2009, Glofish are genetically engineered zebrafish, who have been modified to emit light. This was done by placing a gene for bioluminescence in jellyfish within a group of ordinary zebra fish. Currently, Glofish are being sold as the first genetically modified pets in the world.
• Rapeseed (or canola) plants are being genetically engineered to increase resistance to lethal pesticides. Because of these genetic modifications, farmers are able to spray their crops with insecticides to kill pests and still have the plants survive. This also improves overall crop yield.
• Golden rice is developed to have very large amounts of A-Vitamins, which improve the health of those who eat it, mostly residing in third world countries.
  - One goat was genetically modified with a special gene to produce milk fortified with the silk of a silkworm. This made the milk much healthier.

Artificial human hormones are an example of genetically engineered medicines. Aside from insulin, many artificial nervous system transmitters, such as endorphins, tissue-type plasmogen activators created to treat heart attack victims, interferons that stimulate the immune system, and many other genetically engineered hormones are used to treat viruses and remove mutagens.

One of these genetically altered medicines, artificial growth hormone, a peptide, is used extensively to heal patients with inherited dwarfism, in attempts to help them live normal lives.
The effects of use (and abuse) of genetically engineered hormones are still relatively unknown and could be dangerous to the health of those who introduce it into their body.



Already, grocery store shelves are lined with packs of genetically modified foods. Unfortunately, there are no completely accurate ways of knowing if a food item has been genetically engineered, because the FDA does not require that it be stated on any packaging.

One of the most interesting of these genetically modified foods is the grapple (pictured above). Like many other genetically engineered foods, the grapple was not created simply as a research experiment.

As you may have guessed, the grapple is a combination of the genes of a grape and an apple, taking the apple's size, shape, and color, and the texture, flavour, and vitamin content of the grape. It was created to provide impoverished peoples living in 3rd world, under-developed countries with more vitamin C per serving than any other fruits.


Some More examples of GMOs.




Case Study- The OncoMouse
To what extent do humans have the right to own or control other animals?

The OncoMouse is an example of human patenting of genetically modified organisms. Created to easily simulate the effects of cancerous viruses in humans by using an oncogene which increases susceptibility to cancer in organisms, the OncoMouse was first submitted for patenting in 1988. It was a landmark case: Harvard v. Canada, both vying for ownership of the OncoMouse.

At first, Canada had won the patent, but soon the Commisioner of Patents reversed the decision, as the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that higher lifeforms could not be patented in the country.

The OncoMouse was developed by Philip Leder and Timothy A. Stewart of Harvard University.

The History of Genetic Engineering

When considering where to begin on the chronological timeline of genetic engineering, you need to consider a number of things:
-Traditionally, selective breeding has been going on for centuries, but is it considered a form of genetic engineering?
- Is cross-breeding species a form of genetic engineering?
- What forms of genetic engineering will be included in a list of this kind?

Nonetheless, here is a brief history of genetic engineering:

Summary: During the early 1900s, scientists began mapping out and reproducing chromosomes for experimental purposes.
Modern genetic engineering first began in the late 1960s, early 1970s, as work with viruses, bacteria, and plasmids began.
Also in the 1970s, techniques for isolating, altering, and reintroducing genes into organisms were developed. Methods were created to alter the heredity of some genes in plants, animals, and microorganisms. Near the end of the 1970s, scientists began working on engineering hormones, such as insulin from recombinant DNA.
Bacterially produced insulin became the first approved, genetically engineered medicine in the early 1980s.
Research began on higher animals, mostly mammals, using lab mice as research subjects.

BC
1750 BC The Sumerians first brew beer, using yeast.

250 BC The ancient Greeks practice crop rotation to maximize on soil fertility.

100 BC Powdered chrysanthemums are used as an insecticide in China.

AD

1590 The first microscope is invented by Zacharias Jansen, a Dutch man, in order to increase magnification in eyeglasses.

1663 Cells are first described by Hooke in a piece of cork.

1675 Leeuwenhoek discovers bacteria and protozoa.

1797 Jenner vaccinates a child with a vaccine to protect from smallpox.

19th Century

1830 Proteins are discovered.

1833 The cell nucleus is discovered.

1855 The Escherichia coli (E. Coli) bacterium is discovered. It becomes a major research, development, and production tool for biotechnology and is very important in diabetes treatment.

Pasteur begins working with yeast until he proves that they are living organisms.

1863 Gregor Mendel, in his study of peas, discovers that traits were transmitted from parents to offspring by discrete, independent units, later called genes. His observations lay the groundwork for the fiel

d of genetics.

1869 Miescher discovers DNA in trout sperm.

1877 A technique for staining and identifying bacteria is developed by Koch.

1878 The first centrifuge is developed by Laval. It is able to separate parts of genetic material.

1883 The first rabies vaccine is made.

1888 The chromosome is discovered. Chromosomes, organized structures made up of a strand of DNA binded and coiled around specific proteins and containing genes, are used when cells are replicated.

20th Century

1909 Genes are linked with hereditary disorders.

1911 The first cancer-causing virus is discovered. Cancer is the continuous, uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells.

1914 Microorganisms are used to treat sewage for the first time in Manchester, England.

1915 Bacterial viruses are discovered.

1927 Muller discovers that X-rays can cause mutations.

1928 Fleming discovers penicillin, the first ever antibiotic in the world, a major breakthrough.

1941 The term "genetic engineering" is first used by a Danish scientist.

1942 The electron microscope is used to examine a bacteriophage- a virus that infects bacteria.

1943 Avery demonstrates that DNA is the "transforming factor" and is the material of genes.

1951 McClintock discovers transposable genes, or "jumping genes," in corn. These genes can travel to different segments in an organism's genome.

1953 Very Important! James Watson, Francis Crick, and Rosalind Franklin reveal the three-dimensional, double helical structure of DNA.

1955 An enzyme involved in the synthesis of a nucleic acid is isolated for the first time.

1957 Sickle cell anemia (decrease in normal amount of red blood cells or hemoglobin in blood) is shown to occur due to a change of a single amino acid. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein and serve a critical function in an organism's metabolism.

1960 Hybrid DNA molecules are created.

Messenger RNA and its role in protein creation is found.

1968 Werner Arber discovers the first restriction enzymes. This opens up a door to countless possibilities in genetic engineering.

1970 Specific restriction nucleases (enzymes) are identified, opening the way for gene cloning.

1972 The DNA composition of humans is found to be 99% similar to that of chimpanzees and gorillas.

1973 Stanley N. Cohen Cohen and Herbert W. Boyer perform the first successful recombinant DNA experiment, using bacterial genes. This sets the framework for modern genetic engineering.

1975 New staining techniques are developed for detecting and identifying DNA sequences.

1976 The tools of recombinant DNA are first applied to a human inherited disorder.

1979 The first identical antibodies are produced.

1981 The first gene-synthesizing machines are developed.

1982 Humulin, Genentech's synthetic human insulin drug produced by genetically engineered bacteria for the treatment of diabetes, is the first biotech drug to be approved by the Food and Drug Administration.

1983 The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique is created. PCR, which uses heat and enzymes to make unlimited copies of genes , later becomes a major tool in biotech research and product development worldwide.

The first genetic transference (transformation) of plant cells by TI plasmids (circular plasmids found in agrobacterium) is performed.

The first artificial chromosome is synthesized.

Efficient methods are developed to synthesize double-stranded DNA from single-strand cloned DNA, with minimal loss of genetic sequencing information.

1984 The DNA fingerprinting technique is developed.

The first genetically engineered vaccine is developed.

1985 Fully active murine genes (from a common mouse) are cloned in E. coli.

1986 The first field tests of genetically engineered tobacco are conducted.

The first genetically engineered human vaccine is approved to prevent Hepatitis B.

1987 Humatrope is developed for treating human growth hormone deficiency to help exceptionally short or small humans.

Frostban, a genetically altered bacterium that stops frost from forming on crop plants, is field tested on strawberry and potato plants in California, the first authorized outdoor tests of any engineered bacterium.

1988 The Human Genome Project begins in the US.

The first patent on a genetically modified life form is issued. The animal is the OncoMouse, specially modified for cancer research.

1989 Microorganisms are used to clean up a major oil spill.

1990 The first federally approved gene therapy treatment is performed successfully on a 4-yearold girl suffering from severe immunodeficiency disease, making her very susceptible to other infectious diseases.

1991 Leukine, used to replenish white blood counts after bone marrow transplants, is approved.

1993 Chiron's Betaseron is released as the first treatment for multiple sclerosis in 20 years.

The FDA declares that genetically engineered foods are "not inherently dangerous" and do not require special regulations.

1994 The first breast cancer gene is discovered.

Calgene's "FlAVR SAVR" tomato, engineered to have a longer shelf life", is approved for sale in the US.

1995 The first baboon-to-human bone marrow transplant is performed on an AIDS patient and found to be successful.

The first full gene sequence of a living organism other than a virus is completed .

1996 The Biogen company builds a $50 million plant in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, to manufacture many recombinant DNA drugs.

Scottish scientists led by Ian Wilmut clone identical lambs from early embryonic sheep.This eventually produces Dolly, the sheep.

1997 A group of Oregon researchers claims to have cloned two Rhesus monkeys.

A new DNA technique which uses DNA computer chips and is special program is created, providing a new tool in the search for disease-causing genes.

The USDA amends its regulations for genetically engineered plants. If a producer can prove their plants will have no negative effects on the environment, they can apply and be accepted and approved for non-regulatory status.

1998 Hawaiian scientists clone three generations of mice from nuclei of adult ovarian (egg) cells.

Human skin is produced in vitro (outside of the body).

Embryonic stem cells are used to regenerate tissue and repair damaged organs.

The first complete animal genome for the elegans worm is sequenced.

1998 The change of demographics and public opinion in Europe brings biotech food into the spotlight.

21st Century

2000 Pigs are cloned by researchers, in hopes of producing organs for human transplant.

The 2.18 million base pairs (guanine- cytosine, thymine- adenine; connected by hydrogen bonds) of the most common cause of bacterial meningitis are identified.

2001 The sequence of the human genome is deciphered and published in Science and Nature, making it possible for researchers all over the world to begin developing treatments.

2002 Scientists complete the draft sequence of the most important pathogen (germ that causes negative effects) of rice, a fungus that destroys enough rice to feed 60 million people annually. By using an understanding of the genomes of the fungus and rice, scientists explain the molecular basis of the interactions between the plant and pathogen begin working on ways to rectify the problem.

2003 Dolly, the cloned sheep that became famous in 1997, is euthanized (put down) after developing progressive lung disease. Dolly was the first successful clone of a mammal in history.

Glofish, the first publicly available genetically modified pets, go on sale. To create these Glofish, ordinary zebrafish are injected with green fluorouscent protein, extracted from jellyfish, producing bright green biolumiscence.

Interesting fact -The word "biology" first appeared in 1802.

Check out http://www.iptv.org/exploremore/ge/what/timeline.cfmfor an interactive timeline on the history of genetic engineering.