Genetic Engineering In Plants and Forests

Plants and Crops
Genetic engineering in plants and crops is a substantially easier topic to understand than genetic engineering in animals.

For years, plants have been genetically engineered to control certain traits of interest. This is especially true when it comes to crop plants. Genetic engineering allows scientists, farmers, and company owners to choose the best of a group of crops and then recreate the desirable traits it possesses in other crops. The potential for the technology here is incredible.

There are two main types of genetic engineering in agricultural genetic modification:

Cisgenesis (meaning "same" and "beginning"): Cisgenesis is a genetic engineering technique between two plants that could normally be bred together in nature. A beneficial gene is extracted from a first plant and then transplanted into a plasmid within an agrobacterium (a bacteria known for its ability to transfer DNA between plants), often by use of a restriction enzyme. This enzyme cuts both the plasmid and the agrobacterium into shapes that fit into each other, and when the sticky ends make contact, they connect. Because all organisms share the same genetic code, when this agrobacterium transfers the desired genetic sequence into the new plant, the second plant is able to begin demonstrating the same traits as the first plant, according to the genetic information.

Transgenesis: Transgenesis is extremely similar to Cisgenesis. In fact, the only difference is that in Transgenesis, the genetic material that is being transferred comes from a completely unrelated plant, which could not reproduce with the second plant in nature. Once again, an external gene originating from another plant is transferred into another plant through a plasmid.
The second plant is then able to exhibit the same traits as the first. These traits are passed on to offspring.

Genetically modifying plants can greatly increase their nutritive value and make them more resistant to harsh or unfamiliar conditions and deadly diseases. Could you imagine planting a palm tree in Canada, during winter and having it survive!?
It would also be possible to make plants fix nitrogen straight from the atmosphere and not nutrients in their soil. This would make it much easier to plant nutritious crops in areas where there is not a large amount of fertile or healthy land or where there are major food sources and starvation.
Microorganisms could even be placed in plants' roots to aid in the collection of nutrients. Specific plants could be modified to even cleanse the environment around them and get rid of hazardous toxins. The possibilities are nearly endless.

Another Video:
What's for Dinner? - The Difference Between
Regular and Genetically Modified Potatoes

FRANKEN FOODS!

Forests
In today's world, forestry is a major and very profitable industry for numerous countries across the world, including our own. Products created from lumber are in very high demand and suppliers spend billions of dollars every year to provide them. As more and more companies join the increasing rush to harvest these resources, overall forest health and the number of trees worldwide is rapidly declining, leading many to look to genetic engineering for a solution.

Genetically modified trees are created more or less by the same process as other plants. Genes holding the codes for desired traits are placed into the forest's trees and they soon begin exhibiting the same desired traits. Offspring borne of their seeds also share the same traits.

If you recall, from our previous posts, genetic engineering is a process which allows scientists to choose and control specific genes in an organism's genome. Recent research in genetically modified trees has revealed that it is possible to engineer trees with faster growth, better disease resistance, greater longevity of life, and more oxygen production. Transgenic trees could produce better wood fibres and pulp. Damaged and endangered species disappearing from the face of the planet could also have their numbers dramatically increased by this technology. Many problems too, however, could come from genetically engineering forests. We will discuss these issues in a later post.

The Dangers of Deforestation

The Goal: Genetically Engineering Organisms: Is it fair?- Moral and Ethical Implications ; Pros and Cons

Before we continue any further, let's answer a question about the reasons behind genetic engineering. Forgive us if we get a little...uhh... philosophical (or insane) in this post.

As we know, genetic engineering is when genes and segments of DNA from a cell's chromosomes, the holding place for all genetic and hereditary material, are manipulated for desired effects. When scientists first began working on genetically modifying organisms, they sought to reach a point where it would be possible to develop a slew of "made-to-order" organisms, specialized for particular purposes. Obviously, we still have not reached this point, but perhaps some day in the future, this dream will be realized. Still, even with all the progress science has made in this field, the question remains:
Why is Genetic Engineering Necessary?
Let's attempt to offer a balanced view on this puzzling question, with a collection of pros and cons. *Takes a deep breath*
Pros (Advantages):

• Genetic engineering makes it possible to understand the functions of genes, how genetic mutations and diseases occur, and helps us learn how to treat them, in order to protect further generations.
• Genetically modified, therapeutic medicines can greatly increase immunity to lethal diseases and even cure others. Gene therapy may also be used to heal hereditary or genetic diseases, such as blindness. Modified white blood cells can be used to fight cancerous tumors created by abnormal cells or anomalies in genetic code.
  
• New, quick- growing, cheap, easily renewable and nutritious crops could be engineered as a viable alternative to current foods.
• Genetic modification of mammals may make it possible to create very human-like organs within them. This would greatly reduce the number of donated organs available for transplants in humans. By process of xenotransplantation, the transgenic organs could be transferred to a human who requires them to survive.
  
• Genetic engineering can be used to save species on the brink of extinction. For example, in China, researchers are working on a way to save the Panda.
• Forests can be modified to clean environments, grow larger, and produce more oxygen. GE trees are also being looked at as a possible source for future environmentally- friendly biofeuls.
  
• Genetic engineering can make a wide array of useful antibiotics to deal with illnesses.
  
• Provide those living in third world countries, deprived of resources, with more nutritious and abundant sources of food.
• Genetic engineering can be used to synthesize artificial hormones needed for life, that some patients may be missing.
  

Cons (Disadvantages):

• Many believe that humans do not have the right to experiment on other organisms. All living things have rights, and genetic modification infringes upon these rights.
• Some organisms and embryos are produced simply to harvest one desired gene and discard the remainder of the organic material. This is a blatant disregard for the value of life.
  
• When humans genetically alter organisms, they are "playing God". Many people opposed to genetic engineering believe that only nature should regulate an organism' s evolution, certainly not humans.
• Genetically modified organisms which possess better traits for survival in an environment than their non-modified counterparts will encroach upon the territories of organisms already living there and "choke them out" until the original species ceases to exist. This is similar to introducing an exotic species into a foreign ecosystem where they can thrive. They will usually damage the fragile ecosystem.
  
• Because genetic engineering crosses the "species barrier", some of the modifications made to an organism could be potentially harmful and irreversible. Even worse, it may take years to detect any problems.
  
• As a relatively new technology, there are still many things to be learned about genetic engineering. There are currently no ways of controlling the amount of gene copies placed in a host organism or knowing where the genome will end up. This could lead to some dangerous results.
• Genetically modified organisms may accidentally "silence" an important gene because of the introduction of a new one. This has many unhealthy, adverse effects.
  
• Genetically modified crops tend to have major failures. Because all of the seeds of these crops share the same genetic structure, a virus or fungus that negatively affects one will negatively affect all others.
• Genetic engineering can cause unexpected mutations in organisms and high levels of toxicity in plants. It can also create unforeseen allergens, which could affect many humans, and virtually irreversible damage to ecology (mostly because of gene pollution).
  

Some Questions to Consider:
Only you know the answer to these questions. What is your personal opinion?

- Is the genetic manipulation of animals and plants always morally wrong or are their exceptions?
- Should animal's organs be modified to prevent tissue rejection when transplanted into humans?
- Is is fair to use an animals organs to supply humans?
-Are animal rights the same as human rights?
-How dangerous is it to release genetically modified organisms who have not been properly researched into the biosphere?
-Should humans be able to patent a new genetically modified plant or animal?
-Is genetic engineering research today focused too much on making a profit and not enough on solving problems in nature?

Formally, no countries have completely banned genetic engineering within their borders. However, there are currently many organizations seeking to pass legislation to outlaw genetically modified foods and the genetic engineering of biological organisms and weapons.

Numerous religious, personal, and human factors affect our beliefs on the morality of genetic engineering.

Those who genetically engineer organisms choose desired traits which they believe will be beneficial, but who is to decide which traits take precedent over others? Does the entire process of genetic engineering undermine the value of life? If scientists abandon their morals, they are nothing more than mindless automatons, completing the tasks assigned to them.

And my final question: If the animals were on the other side of the fork, would they care about our rights?

Here's a video that outlines the ethical concerns surrounding genetic engineering. It's somewhat long winded, but very informative:
Ethical Concerns With Genetic Engineering




Also, here's another animation to help you further understand the topic of gene cloning. Enjoy!

Genetically Engineering Animals: The Process

When the term "genetic engineering" is mentioned, what are the first notions that pop up in your mind? For most people, thoughts of fantastical hybrid animals or amalgamations of various connected animal parts appear. For the more imaginative, it may conjure up thoughts of a higher species of super-humans, far superior to our own. In practice, genetically modifying animals is a much more modest technology.

Genetically engineering animals works only because of the fact that all organisms on Earth are made up of the same basic biochemical components. The cells of all organisms on our planet utilize a similar genetic code to delegate specialized tasks, making it possible for scientists to replace or alter these genes to change an organism's appearance, behavior, structure or even their evolutionary process.

The beauty of this technology is that DNA derived from two vastly different organisms may be transferred, giving us some pretty amazing end results. Still, producing these transgenic organisms or GEOs (Genetically engineered organisms) has proved to be much harder than originally believed.

There are two main methods of introducing foreign genetic material into an organism's genome:

Pro-nuclear micro-injection: Usually, genetic modification is carried out by micro-injection.

Using Plasmids:
First, the desired gene in the nucleus of an organism's cell, containing DNA, is isolated. Second, this desired gene may be placed in a vector, such as a plasmid. The plasmid is the basis of recombinant DNA technology. Plasmids can contain anywhere from 2-250 genes.

A plasmid (or vector when being used to transfer a specific gene) is a tiny, extra-chromosomal DNA molecule, which can be altered by using an enzyme or solution. This creates "sticky", cohesive ends which can fit together with the gene of interest once it, too, has had its shape mutated by the restriction enzyme. A DNA ligase can also be used to strengthen these bonds. After the plasmid is connected with the gene of interest from another organism, it is placed back in the chromosomal DNA host cell. Eventually, the changed plasmid is integrated into the DNA (it creates new connections between the nucleotides: guanine, adenine, cytosine, and thymine in the DNA) and placed within a test subject. Once inside the organism, these cell begins to replicate, spreading the new functionality to all cells in the test subject. The new gene transcribes messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid), which are translated by ribosomes, microscopic organelles within cells, and protein synthesis begins.

Physical Injection:
Physical insertion of a desired gene into a fertilized mammalian egg is a much simpler form of genetic engineering. A solution containing a gene of interest is directly injected into a fertilized egg during its early developmental stages using a microscopic syringe. The egg is now placed in a surrogate mother. When offspring are born, they are screened for the desired trait. This gene may or may not be expressed in the offspring. For those who test positive for the gene of interest, further breeding ensues.


Somatic cell nuclear transfer: This process is used extensively in the field of cloning, but somatic cell nuclear transfer can also be used to modify an animal's genetic code. The nucleus of an unfertilized egg from a first donor is removed and then replaced with a somatic cell nucleus from another donor. A somatic cell is a body cell (one that is not a sperm or egg cell), containing the genetic material of the organism to be replicated. Next, the egg is cultured in a laboratory. It is at this point that new genetic material may be introduced into the egg by a microscopic pipette. After an electrical shock, the egg begins to duplicate and the embryo is quickly implanted into a surrogate mother. The replicating of strands of DNA now contain the desired gene that was added at the lab. Soon an offspring is born, carrying this new gene.

Here are two videos on this subject:
Gene Splicing


Genetically Modifying Pigs

Genetic Engineering in Medicine

Genetic engineering has a broad variety of applications in the medical world. Because this biotechnology can modify the organic parts of an organism's genetic code, it may be used to strengthen immunity or even to remove ("weed out") diseased cells. Scientists are pushing the frontiers of both science and medicine. Let's talk about some of the types of medicines that are being created using today's genetic engineering technology.

Pharmacogenomics: Every human being (excluding some exceptions) has a unique genetic structure. So, then, why does everyone receive the same types of medicine for their different circumstances?

Pharmacogenomics is a new branch of pharmeuceutics, which aims to tailor medicines to work with an individual's unique genetic structure. This entire branch is based upon the belief that drugs made to work with one specific genetic make-up will be far more effective than what is currently in use. Pharmacogenomics is very new and has only been around for about five years.

Vaccines: Vaccines are the most effective form of disease prevention in the world, except for clean water. There are numerous ways to use genetic engineering to manufacture vaccines and antibiotics on a large scale.

First, scientists determine which gene in a pathogenic, or disease-causing, virus stimulates the production of antibodies in the human immune system. The section of DNA containing this gene is isolated and then placed into a non-harmful virus, such as the one used to vaccinate against smallpox many years ago. This is usually accomplished by the use of a plasmid, which acts as chromosomal DNA and replicates in the new bacterium where it has been incorporated. The new virus, containing the recombinant DNA, is used as a vaccine and injected into patients.

Genetically modified vaccines are much safer than conventional ones because they do not expose the patient to the actual virus, as it may sometimes lead to accidental infection.

Gene Therapy: Gene therapy deals with medical conditions by introducing specific genetically engineered genes into the cells of a patient.There are two types of gene therapy: Somatic cell and germ line.

Somatic cell- This form of gene therapy deals only with non-reproductive cells within the body (somatic). Instead of introducing new cells, somatic cell gene therapy modifies already existent ones. The effects of somatic cell gene therapy are not inherited in offspring and will only affect the individual who is treated.

Usually, the desired genes will be placed in another non-harmful virus and injected into a patient. This process attempts to introduce the gene into millions of cells in the patient's body. However, accomplishing this is a very difficult task and the process will often not work. In the future, though, it could be more capable of expressing certain, helpful genes in those who need it.

Germ Line- Germ line therapy occurs at a very early stage of the development of an organism, so that all cells that duplicate from it, will all possess the desired gene or modified DNA. First started in the 1980s, germ line therapy has become an easy and very commonplace process. Nowadays, most scientists are able to alter an animal's embryo at birth.

Because it allows scientists to alter an organisms genetic code before it is born, germ line therapy can be used to remove unwanted genes for crippling muscle or life-threatening diseases, to ensure that offspring are not born with them. Still, the effects of this form of gene therapy on humans are still very much unknown.

In the future, this technology could be used by parents to choose desired traits for their offspring prior to their birth. This method of gene therapy raises many serious ethical questions, prompting the AAAS (American Assosiciation for the Advancement of Science) to issue a temporary ban on it in the year 2000.

Gene Therapy Animation- Introduction
of a Therapeutic Agent into Liver Cells




Insulin and Other Hormones and Chemicals: The first synthetic human insulin was released in 1982. Until then, humans with an insulin deficiency, such as diabetes, were required to recieve transplants from the pancreases of other animals.

The process of creating synthetic insulin is quite simple. It relies heavily on DNA recombination. First a plasmid from a cell of the E. Coli bateria living within human intestines is removed and opened by using a special enzyme. Next the DNA coding for human insulin is inserted into the open plasmid and closed by another enzyme. The recombined plasmid is inserted into a host E. Coli cell and begins to replicate. Because all of the replicated cells are the same, human insulin production begins, according to the DNA implanted in the cell.

Using similar processes, scientists are also able to create large amounts of other substances useful in medicines, such as peptides which are short proteins. Many of these chemicals are used to alter hormone production around the body or genetically engineered to create proteins which stimulate the immune system. They may also be used to heal viruses, including certain types of cancer. We will speak more about these chemicals in a later post.

Stem Cells:
At the Democratic National Convention in July 2004, former US president Ronald Reagan hailed embryonic stem cell research as:

“(the) greatest medical breakthrough in our or in any lifetime”

Basically, embryonic stem cells are very young cells found in a mammal's embryo, which can be used to create many forms of tissue to repair or replace damaged organs in humans. They are especially useful because embryonic stem cells can be used to replace important tissue that does not grow back, such as that from a brain. Also, using embryonic stem cells to repair organs is much safer and more plentiful than using donated tissue.

So how do they do it? First, scientists remove a female egg cell and fertilize it in vitro (outside of the body) They allow the egg to grow in a blastocyst of a few hundred cells within the laboratory. A blastocyst is an embryonic structure that forms during the early stages of embryogenesis (the creation of an embryo). Then, scientists remove the inner mass of the embryo, containing the useful stem cells.

Embryonic stem cells are much more useful than other adult stem cells because they can create a much broader range of tissues. Adult stem cells are already specialized for creating a certain tissue, limiting their functionality in other parts of the body.

Scientists are also looking at extracting cells from a female's uterus or the ends of a baby's umbilical cord to repair tissue, but this is still a new and untested procedure. So far, no one has succeeded in curing diseases with adult stem cells, but embryonic stem cells are much more promising.

So, why the controversy?

During the process of harvesting the useful stem cells, the rest of the embryo is destroyed. Because of this, embryonic stem cell research has become a highly debated topic. Some believe that destroying the embryo is akin to murdering a human being, while others argue that the embryo is nothing but a collection of cells, still incapable of thinking or feeling pain as they have not yet reached the 28th week of gestation within the fetus.

Another advantage of using embryonic stem cells is that they are cross-species, meaning that stem cells from a human could be used to heal an animal, or vice versa. In one example, human embryonic stem cells were used to fix the spinal column of a paralyzed rat, enabling it to walk again and even run on a minature treadmill.

Stem cells could even be used to create clones.

Here's a video about some newer developments in the field of stem cell research.
Stem Cells: Of Mice and Men

What is Genetic Engineering?

Here is the simple answer to this difficult question : genetic engineering is the process by which the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), or source of individuality of every organism on Earth, is directly manipulated in order to yield specific features or characteristics in an organism.
Because genetic engineering utilizes artificial methods to attain desired results, it is different from traditional forms of selective breeding. GE technology can be used to manipulate the appearance, structure, behavior, reactions to external stimuli, and metabolism of an organism, just to name a few uses.


Genetic engineering (also known as genetic modification or gene splicing) is a very complex topic, spanning several varied biotechnologies.

We will focus on and explore the following four subjects and how they relate to genetic engineering:

• Medicine
  
• Animals
  
• Plants
• Forests

The advance of genetic engineering makes it quite conceivable that we will begin to design our own evolutionary process.

~Isaac Asimov, The Beginning and the End